From the tap of your washroom to the satellite by which you enjoy your television programs, mathematics has revolutionized the entire universe. Here, TopYaps is documenting the ten best mathematicians throughout the history, who, by their astonishing discoveries, radically reshaped the way we live.

10. Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (1170 – 1250, Italian):

Best known by his nickname – “Fibonacci,” this legendary and the most intelligent western mathematician of the Middle Ages is widely esteemed for his in-depth work on the Fibonacci numbers. In the early 13th century, he wrote a book on mathematics – Liber Abaci, which is famous for popularizing the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe.

9. Gottfried Leibniz (July 1, 1646 – November 14, 1716, German):

Gottfried Leibniz is counted among some of the best mathematicians who, by his, innovative ideas, changed the contemporary panorama of mathematics. He is honored for developing the Leibniz’s mathematical notation, infinitesimal calculus (along with Sir Issac Newton), symbolic logic and for restructuring the binary number system which is the foundation of all digital computers.

8. Alan Turing (June 23, 1912 – June 7, 1954, British):

Best known for being the father of computer science and artificial intelligence, Alan Turing was the man who germinated the concepts of algorithm as well as developed the mechanism of computation with the Turing Machine. Because of carrying thorough knowledge in the field of cryptanalysis, he was appointed in the British codebreaking centre during the World War 2 to break German ciphers.

7. Joseph Louis Lagrange (January 25, 1736 – April 10, 1813, Sardinian, French):

In the list of best mathematicians throughout the history, the name of J. L. Lagrange is taken with uttermost respect. He made salient contributions to all fields of analysis, analytical mechanics, number theory, as well as classical and celestial mechanics. For more than 20 years, he was the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences, where he produced a large body of work in the field of mathematics.

joseph louis lagrange (image source: universetoday.com)

6. Bernhard Riemann (September 17, 1826 – July 20, 1866, German):

A bright student of Carl Friedrich Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, emerged as one of the most influential mathematicians of this age. His lasting contributions to differential geometry and analysis have enabled the later foundation of general relativity. His theory “Riemann Surfaces” which is an essential part of the foundation of Topology, is still applied in mathematical physics.

5. Archimedes (287 BC – 212BC, Greek):

Considered to be the best mathematician of antiquity, Archimedes of Syracuse is highly regarded in the community of scholars for discovering some crucial mathematical concepts, without which we can’t imagine the functioning of modern mathematics. Archimedes was the person who gave the accurate approximation of Pi, using the method of exhaustion.

4. Euclid (365 BC – 275 BC, Greek):

Euclid was an ace of computation, who is counted among one of the best mathematicians of all time. Also known as the “Father of Geometry,” Euclid, in 300 BC, published a mathematical treatise – “Elements,” which revolutionized the field of mathematics by some sensational theories. The geometrical system explained by him in the “Elements” was called as “Geometry” for a long time. However, in the 19th century, couple of mathematicians changed the term to “Euclidean Geometry.”

3. Leonhard Euler (April 15, 1707 – September 18, 1783, Swiss):

Leonhard Euler was an eminent Swiss mathematician who gained enormous laurels for his significant contributions in infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. Through his widely circulated textbooks, he popularized various notational conventions such as f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x, letter i to denote the imaginary unit, e for the base of natural algorithm, Σ for summation, and others.

2. Carl Friedrich Gauss (April 30, 1777 – February 23, 1855, German):

Carl Friedrich Gauss is considered as the best mathematician Germany has ever had. Sometimes referred to as the “Prince of Mathematicians,” this mega-nerd will be always remembered throughout the existence of mathematics for his vigorous works in differential geometry, number theory, statistics, analysis and other crucial topics. Number of Gauss’ students have became influential mathematicians, such as Friedrich Bessel, Bernhard Riemann, Richard Dedekind, and others.

1. Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 – March 20, 1727, British):

Considered as the most influential scientist of the world, Sir Issac Newton, undoubtedly, till the date, is the best mathematician who ever lived on the planet earth. His radical theories and innovations will certainly rule the realms of science and mathematics in the coming centuries. Rather than renovating a unique branch of mathematics, he advanced every branch then studied.

Weird disappearings regarding the Bermuda Triangle have revolutionized much in theory, good and bad, thought-arousing and apparently-freakish. Theories behind these disappearings are enough to make us pause and consider, to accept and to reject. TopYaps is hopping in the secret water of Bermuda Triangle to present ten most popular theories behind its enigma.

10. Pirates:

Calculated incidents of destruction and disappearances of ships are often backed up by folklores of pirates. However, piracy can’t describe the disappearings of aircraft, but by all account of some estimable old-fashioned mythologies, boats and ships are often hijacked by pirates for smuggling operations. Probably, you can gaze the Bermuda Triangle as a pirate dominion.

9. Methane hydrates:

The Bermuda Triangle possesses a smart concentration of Methane Hydrate, interlaced underneath sea sediments. Because of accidental drillings or landslides under the surface of the earth, the wide bed of this disastrous gas could be unlocked, reducing the density of water dramatically. Due to extremely low density water, ships suddenly sink to the bottom. According to the up-to-the-minute studies, this combustible gas could also blow aircraft to pieces.

8. Electronic fog:

Best known as the most notable enigma of Bermuda Triangle, Electronic Fog is basically a meteorological phenomenon which sticks to an aircraft or a ship like a monolithic cotton ball. It is said that in influence of electronic fog, electronic equipments of aircraft and ship undergo series of malfunctions, such as spinning of compasses and amiss of digital readouts.

7. Government testing:

United States Navy’s Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC) is located in the halfway of the mysterious Bermuda Triangle which is used as a hub to test submarines, weapons, sonar, secret projects and reverse-engineered alien technology. According to some renowned scholars and scientists, this experimental actuation maneuver is the prime reason behind mysterious disappearances.

6. Man made energy field:

Resting under the cover of “accepted science,” many scholars assume that the Bermuda Triangle is a man made energy field, conceptualized on the theories of Tesla technology. According to this theory, a hypothetical VLF-Resonance transmitter is residing under the depths of Bermuda Triangle which holds the capability to recharge ruminated secret electric-powered submarine classes and provides sufficient interference to destroy the signals upon which ships and aircraft rely.

5. Souls of black slaves:

Souls of the black slaves is one of the most significant theories of the Bermuda Triangle. If believed to the words of a notable British psychiatrist, Dr. Kenneth McAll, this mysterious place comprises souls of black African slaves who had been thrown overboard by sea captains amid their journey to United States. In this book, Healing the Haunted, Dr. McAll stated that a continuous haunted sound (like mournful singing) could be listened while sailing in the waters of Bermuda Triangle.

4. Human Error:

Well, it’s a crystal clear fact that we all make mistakes, and it’s also obvious that sailors and pilots are no exception. Swift currents, identical-looking islands and disruptive tropical weather are enough to distract one’s way. And talking about aviation or sailing, if you make even a small wrong turn, you’ll be surely far away from your actual destination, embracing a tragical disaster.

3. Unbalanced weather patterns:

Bermuda Triangle is best known for its bad weather patterns that strike the area in an extremely adverse manner. While leaving the United States, storm systems usually beef up in Bermuda Triangle speedily without warning. Ships sunk or aircraft crashes because even their radar system can’t forecast that how potent hurricanes could be or how rapidly storms could appear in scene. Amid the flow of horrifying currents, wreckage of ship and aircraft vanishes, and people are left with a solo statement – “It just disappeared.”

2. The lost city of Atlantis:

Beneath the dark depths of the Bermuda Triangle, there are remainses of the fabled Atlantis, and according to legend, this historical city was powered by mystical crystals. It is said that crystals are still resting on the seabed and transmit herculean waves of energy, responsible for the destruction of ships and aircraft.

1. Aliens:

According to the biggest school of thought regarding the mysticism of Bermuda Triangle, aliens reside in the depth of the sea as an interplanetary creatures. It is also concluded that aliens use the Bermuda Triangle as a portal to travel from their unknown planets to ours. This area is a gathering station for aliens where they capture people, aircraft, ships and other objects in order to conduct research.

Day by day computer geeks are trespassing the parameters of its limitation and are evolving new concepts as they are merely a fun-to-do job. Algo, code, encryption, decryption and blah blah blah…..guys are just nerd in manipulating and figuring out riddle after riddle. Yet, there are some hidden meanings behind certain scripts, waiting for their decipherment. Still, they are far-off from the realm of blokes. Below are ten of the most renowned.

10. Chinese Gold Bar Cipher:

Linked up with a transaction of almost $300,000,000, seven gold bars were issued to a General Wang in Shanghai, in 1933. These bars weigh a total of 1.8 kilogram and consists a blend of cryptic Latin letters, pictures, script writing and Chinese writing that are yet to be deciphered. Finding out a satisfactory explanation for this cipher is still a tough for the International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR) as well as for eminent decoders across the world.

9. D’agapeyeff Cipher:

For first time, this uncracked cipher was mentioned in “Codes and Cipher,” a book written in 1939 by notable cartographer Alexander D’agapeyeff. This book is occupied by classic encryption methods but it’s a matter of fact that Alexander D’agapeyeff, himself, forgot the mechanism which he had implemented on this piece of numerical strings.

8. 340-Character Cipher:

Comprising disarrayed stars and astrological symbols, this unbroken code is generally a letter which was delivered by Zodiac, a serial killer, to members of press in San Francisco and its surrounding areas. Till the date, cracking this code is far beyond the reach of computing power, despite of numerous solutions being proposed.

7. Dorabella Cipher:

Spread over 3 lines and constituting 87 characters, the Dorabella Cipher is an encrypted letter written by Edward Elgar, a famous British composer, to Miss Dora Penny on July 14, 1897. Total 24 symbols were used to write this encryption, with each symbol consisting either 1,2 or 3 semicircles, pointing in one of eight different directions. On 150th birth anniversary of Edward Elgar, a competition was organized to crack this code but finally ended up in a fruitless expedition.

6. Shugborough Inscription:

Considered among one of the world’s top uncracked ciphertexts, Shugborough Inscription deals with a string of eight letters – O U O S V A V V, carved between the letters D and M, on a shepherd’s monument in the grounds of Shugborough Hall, England. This cipher was introduced during 1637-1638, in the “Shepherds of Arcadia,” a noteworthy painting of Nicolas Poussin.

5. Voynich Manuscript:

Better known as the world’s most mysterious manuscript, this handwritten book of early 15th century constitutes approximately 240 pages, made of vellum. Despite of deep researches conducted by many professionals and notable cryptanalysts around the world, its script, language and author are still a subject of mystery.

4. Beale Ciphers:

Dealing with a hidden treasure located somewhere in Bedford County, Virginia, Beale Ciphers are a set of three encryptions written by a man named Thomas Jefferson Beale. Two of the ciphertexts describe owner’s information as well as the content of treasure but the third and most important one relates the exact location where jewels, gold and silver are buried.

3. Linear A:

Generated from the hieroglyphic script, Liner A was used around 1500 BC in ancient Crete. This script was discovered in 1900, by Sir Arthur Evans, in form of tablets inscribed with cryptical symbols. This mystifying code consists of phonetic symbols presenting syllables along with sematographic symbols presenting abstract ideas and sounds. Some conclusion were made after the decipherment of Linear B inscription which is considered identical to Linear A but the exact meaning of this script is still unclear.

2. Kryptos:

Carved on a large S-shaped structure made of wood, granite, quartz and copper, Kryptos is located in the premises of Central Intelligence Agency in Virginia. Three sections out of the four of sculpture have been decoded but the fourth and most important one still remains a thought-provoking matter for cryptanalysts. In present time, over 2000 members of the Yahoo! Groups are working together to decrypt the code.

1. Phaistos Disk:

This disk of fired clay was discovered by Luigi Pernier, an Italian archaeologist, in 1908, in the Minoan palace-site of Phaistos. It is about 15 cm in diameter and constitutes 45 unique signs that are, till the date, the most baffling and mysterious scripts for decoders. The disk lacks the availability of enough context to extract meaningful analysis.

10. Hobo Spider:

The hobo spider’s bite can cause the death of the tissue around the area and even though it is not fatal but it can cause serious consequences if left untreated. The easiest way to recognize the bite of a hobo spider is a headache that comes and goes but is usually unaffected by normal medications. It usually leaves a permanent scar on the affected area.

9. Sac Spider:

The Sac Spider is also a venomous spider which has a cytotoxin which can kill live cells around the affected areas. The spider is known as a ghost spider which is not deadly to humans and can only leave a nasty mark around the affected areas.

8. Goliath tarantula:

This spider is one of the largest known spiders and is usually quite the sight to see. It is not deadly when it bites humans, but has a fair amount of venom on itself. The spider is also known as the bird eater tarantula. It gets its name as it can easily devour small birds and other creatures of similar sizes.

7. The Wolf Spider:

The wolf spider comes in different types all around the world. It exists in different shades of black and brown and its bite can cause a serious infection which if left untreated can cause major complications. The spiders are all hunters and kill their prey quickly and ferociously and hence they get the name wolf.

6. Red Back Spider:

The Red Back spider is an Australian spider that has a typical red mark on its back. Its bite can be deadly if not treated quickly. The spider exists in urban and rural areas and its bite can be deadly to young people and old people too and the symptoms of the bite of this spider causes vomiting and pain in the muscles and joints which are usually set in quickly.

5. The Mouse Spider:

The mouse spider is a very versatile creature that can adapt itself to most environments easily. The spider is found almost everywhere around the world and is known to be aggressive and it has venom enough to kill. The venom can affect the nervous system and can have rapid effects.

4. Funnel-Web Spiders:

This Australian spider is a very dangerous species of spider which is found mostly around the city of Sydney. The symptoms of the bite can surface rapidly and can progress very quickly. The bite if untreated can even cause a rapid and painful death in most cases.

3. The Brazilian Wandering Spider:

The Brazilian Wandering spider is one of the most aggressive species of spiders and also among the most venomous. It is found in South American countries and possesses a strong neurotoxin which can also prove fatal if not treated. It is also popularly known as the banana spider.

2. The Black Widow:

The Black widow is one of the most feared spiders found anywhere in the world. Although the spiders are rarely brown they are known as the black widows. The bite of this spider can cause death too but hardly one percentage of the bites of the spiders is fatal as there are antivenins available easily. They thrive in warm regions and are also known to travel fair distances.

1. Brown Recluse:

The Brown Recluse is among the most poisonous spiders known to man. The spider is very hard to locate as it usually thrives in dark areas under furniture and boxes etc. The symptoms of the bite are also very rapid and dangerous and it can cause death too in a matter of an hour. The symptoms are usually fast and drastic and by the time people notice its bite, the venom has already spread.

Our universe is too vast for us to imagine in some ways. It is unthinkable to us that we are but a speck of a speck of what our universe is or what we have found anyways. The earth itself holds many mysteries then it is not imaginable how many different mysteries would the entire universe have. Even in our own solar system we have a lot of mysteries brewing. So far we have managed to begin to explore our closest neighbor and the vast infinity is still there beckoning us to reach for the stars. Now, we look at some of the top mysteries of space.

10. Moon’s mysteries:

The moon despite being our own satellite, is still very much undiscovered. The terrain and the lack of an atmosphere make it extremely difficult to observe and so does the rotation. Many different things like canals and ruins of cities have shown up in pictures, although they are not sufficiently clear there is not much evidence to say that it could not be possible.

9. Mars’ mysteries:

Our closest neighbor planet has always been a ball full of mysteries for observers from earth. The presence of water on the surface of the planet has also caused many speculations on whether there was and could be possible life on the planet. However so far most things including the face on the Martian surface remain a mystery and more missions and explorations are in order.

8. Saturn’s ring:

Saturn is the second largest planet in our solar system and it has a network of rings that are made up of dust and space rock and ice fragments. Different theories have been proposed for explaining the rings but none conclusive so far. Besides the rings, the planet also has a large number of moons most of which have volcanic surfaces.

7. Formation of Galaxies:

Galaxies are huge clusters of space matter like stars, solar systems and gigantic balls of gases that are light years huge in size. We can’t even imagine how long it would take to explore one, most galaxies occur in shapes that are either spiral or elliptical. Even though observations and calculations have confirmed that it is because of the concentration of mass, nobody knows how the mass got there.

6. Gigantic Black Holes:

Black holes also come in all shapes and sizes it seems and gigantic black holes are known to be at the centers of giant galaxies in most instances. Some other gigantic sources of disruption have also been observed but their origins are unknown as for such a large black hole to form, a lot of mass would be required.

5. Extraterrestrial life:

Extraterrestrial life has always been a fascination since early humans. Many reports of UFOs over the years have given a strong indication. However most things remain a mystery and scientists have even come up with a formula which finds the probability of a planet like the earth existing. An organization called the SETI is also in operation which constantly comes out with new theories and new proof to prove aliens exist.

4. Dark Matter:

Popular theories and observations have proven that very less of the actual mass of our universe is really visible to us. The matter which is known as dark matter has not been observed however most cosmological theories point to the indication that dark matter does exist. This has also been given as the reason why galaxies seem to be moving apart as this dark matter offers repulsion that is greater than gravity.

3. Parallel Universes:

Parallel universes have been in question for decades now and though new theories project their existence convincingly, they remain a mystery that intrigues scientists and physicists. The main point that most arguing scientists have is that there is no proof to prove that they don’t exist. Also many of the unanswered questions would easily be answered if parallel universes were to exist.

2. Warp Holes:

Warp holes are portals that connect two points in space. Science fiction is full of space ships that could get from one point in the universe to another within a matter of seconds. Perhaps one day we will also travel from one end of the universe to another in a matter of seconds.

1. Origin of the universe:

The greatest mystery of the universe has to be how it came to be. There are countless theories that are all highly convincing but the problem is that when a new theory comes up, with time it becomes obsolete. The problems that modern day cosmologists and physicists face are constantly evolving and one day we will perhaps have the answer to all the questions of our universe.

However, the realm of science and technology is considered as an arena for men but one can’t simply ignore the devotion of women for promoting these fields. Topyaps figures ten female scientists those who are held in high regards for their salient contribution to the mankind by making some important discoveries in the massive field of science and technology.

10. Anita Roberts (America):

Anita Roberts was born on April 3, 1942, in Pennsylvania and in 1968, from University of Wisconsin-Madison, she cleared her doctorate in biochemistry. She is credited for her incredible work in exploring the hidden characteristics of a protein, TGF – beta, which plays a significant role in healing wounds and bone fractures. This molecular biologist, herself, was a patient of gastric cancer and before her death in 2006, she significantly contributed in the growth of Laboratory of Cell Regulation and Carcinogenesis (LCRC) at National Cancer Institute.

9. Rosalind Franklin (Britain):

An essential pillar of modern science, Franklin is better known for her contribution in revealing the structure of DNA. Using the X-ray diffraction technique, this British biophysicist concluded that DNA molecule comprises looped double helix of atoms. She also discovered that DNA could be crystallized in two different forms – A & B.

8. Ada Lovelace (Britain):

Credited for being the world’s first computer programmer, Ada Lovelace penned her research on the analytical engine, the mechanical general purpose computer of Charles Babbage. Her observations on this engine was acknowledged as the first algorithm. Buff of mathematics from an early age, Lovelace was honored by United States Department of Defense, when programming language, Ada was named after her. She has been also portrayed in a movie - Conceiving Ada.

7. Jane Goodall (Britain):

A British anthropologist and UN Messenger of Peace, Jane Goodall is best known for her extensive research on the social culture of Chimpanzees in Tanzania’s Gombe Stream National Park. Counted among some notable alumni of Cambridge University, Goodall now operates an organization which focuses on the environmental and wildlife conservation.

6. Gertrude Belle Elion (America):

Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology, this American pharmacologist and biochemist formulated a large number of new drugs that later conceptualized the AZT, an antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of AIDS. Her entire life was dedicated to the scientific advancement and by the time her name is attached to some 45 patents.

5. Rachel Carson (America):

Born in a rustic river town of Springdale, this American marine biologist is considered as the mother of environmental movement. After earning the degree of M.A. in zoology from John Hopkins University in 1932, she joined the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries as a biologist but resigned in 1952 to dedicate her life in exploring the ecology of life.

4. Virginia Apgar (America):

This renowned American physician is better known for founding the Apgar Newborn Scoring System, a method used to evaluate the health of newborn children. This radical invention has surprisingly scaled down the infant mortality across the world.

3. Trotula of Salerno (Italy):

One of the most celebrated scientist of eleventh century, Trotula wrote down several books on medicine and women’s health. It is believed that she was physician at the School of Salerno where she significantly contributed in the formation of medical knowledge’s encyclopedia.

2. Maria Goeppert-Mayer (Germany):

A German born, American physicist and Nobel Prize winner in physics, Maria Mayer is a sacred name in the arena of Nuclear Physics for suggesting the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. After completing her Ph.D. from the University of Gottingen in 1930, she started teaching here and there but continued her research on mathematical model for nuclear shells.

1. Marie Curie (Poland):

A groundbreaker in the area of radioactivity, Marie Curie is the first woman to win the Nobel Prize, the first female professor at University of Paris and also the first person to grab Nobel Prize in two different fields. It was madam Curie who gave the theory of radioactivity and discovered two new elements, polonium and radium. She is also credited for initiating the treatment of cancer, using radioactive isotopes.

The domain of medicine and biology is a bystander of some radical inventions and advancements. This page of Topyaps is a description of the most well known.

10. Syringe:

In 1946, Blaise Pascal made a syringe for scientific use. With this syringe, purgative clysters were administered. The French doctor Velpeau made some observations on aneurysms. He pricked a needle into an aneurysm and noticed the formation of a clot. In 1835, the French doctor Charles Gabriel Parvaz invented the hypodermic syringe for injecting ferric chloride. The syringe was made up of a silver cylinder and the lid of the pump body could be screwed down; the cylinder had a nozzle to which the cannula could be fixed, which was itself extended by a steel trocar. Fournier invented the glass syringe in 1895. To eject the liquid, a piston which could be pushed down quite easily was used.

9. Stethoscope:

Listening to sounds of internal organs by amplifying them with an instrument began in the 19th century. In 1816, the Frenchman Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec invented a wooden tube which was capable of isolating the organic noises from the surrounding environment and making them louder. He heard these with only one ear. Later, two hollow tubes were used so that the sounds could be heard with both ears. Laennec made two kinds of stethoscope; one was a hollow tube to examine the thorax and the other, a solid tube for examining the heart. The first type developed into two models – one was cylindrical and was used to listen to changes in the voice, the second was widened at the auricular end to listen to breathing and rattles in the throat.

8. Vaccination:

In the 18th century, the anti-smallpox vaccine was rediscovered in the west. It had been invented in China by a Taoist monk in the 10th century BC. The invention was probably based on philosophical principles, i.e. treating an evil with an evil. The principle of attenuation of the germs by a multiple transmissions was practiced some thirty centuries ago. The process of vaccination started by the implantation of a pad carrying some attenuated germs in one nostril. It is mentioned in some Chinese texts that cultures of attenuated germs were kept in sealed flasks, so as to keep them away from heat and light.

7. Contact Lenses:

In 1887, the German ophthalmologist A.E. Fick devised the first corneal lenses, now known as contact lenses. The German firm I.G. Farben adopted the idea of Fick and made some lenses out of plexiglass which were lighter, though their manufacture and use still use problems. In 1956, the Englishman Norman Bier made lenses of smaller diameters that did not cover the whole of the eyeball. These were made of methacrylate and could be easily inserted and taken out. The American firm Softsite Contact Lens Laboratory improved them and made soft contact lenses, acceptable to eyes.

6. Contraceptives:

Contraception has been practiced by human beings since early times. The ancient documents gave an idea of the use of vaginal tampons which were soaked in substances like honey, olive oil, onion juices etc. The condom made its appearance in the 16th century to prevent veneral diseases. These were made from vulcanized rubber from 1840, and from latex since 1930. In the 19th century, intra-uterine devices (IUD) appeared. These were applied to the neck of the womb. It was simplified form of the tampon. The German doctor R. Richter made the first scientific coil. In 1921, the Austrian Ludwig Haberlandt took human anti-ovulatory secretions into consideration and made the contraceptive pill. The Americans Allen and Corner made the hormone progesterone in 1929. The American Gregor Pincus was the one who gave the scientific approval for the use of progesterone as a contraceptive, by specifying the exact amount to be used. Thus the ‘pill’ was made.

5. Electrical Cardiac Stimulation:

In the 20th century, the cardiac muscle was stimulated using the pacemaker. In 1802, the Frenchman Pierre Henri Nysten obtained freshly guillotined corpses and worked on restoring the dead heart. He observed that the auricles could move even when other parts of the heart had stopped moving. In 1774, an English doctor ‘resuscitated’ a child who, having fallen from the second floor of a building was declared dead. He administered electrical charged on his chest. In 1871, the German F. Steiner applied this technique on his patient who had fainted and could not be revived by other means. He implanted a needle in his heart and then transmitted a weak electric current through it. He found that he could revive his patient. In 1889, the American J. MacWilliam proposed rhythmical stimulation with an alternating current. This current should be applied to a specific place in the heart. He carried out his operation by applying electrodes to the thorax and succeeded in restarting a heart that had stopped.

4. Artificial Kidney:

The American John J. Abel, L.G. Rowntree and B.B Turner invented the first artificial kidney. It consisted of a set of porous tubes submerged in a colloidal solution. This demonstrated the detoxification effect of the kidney, and the blood toxins in canine blood were removed when it passed through the filters. But a filter had to be made which could filter human toxins and also an efficient anticoagulant which would enable the blood to circulate outside the body without clotting. Cellophane was found to be a reliable filter, and heparin a reliable anticoagulant. In 1945, the Dutchman Willem Kolff made the first artificial kidney keeping all the above facts in mind. Kolff’s kidney could be used for purifying the blood of a human being suffering from renal failure. Over the years, the size of the apparatus was reduced considerably and patients could use mobile units and carry out dialysis at home.

3. Autopsy:

The doctor who realized the importance of autopsy was the famous Greek, Galen from Pergamon. He attained this knowledge by observing the wounds of his patients and by dissecting monkeys and pigs. He had studied the laryngeal nerve and came to a conclusion that the human body had to be dissected to study its various parts. Around the 15th century, autopsy was authorized more often in the case of suspicious deaths. When Pope Alexander V died suddenly in 1410, an autopsy of his body was ordered. When the famous Flemish doctor Andre Vesale became famous in 1537, he created a chair of anatomy and surgery, thereby setting up autopsy as a fundamental medical discipline. He obtained corpses from the burgomaster of the town and is remembered as the founder of autopsy.

2. Artificial Heart:

The Soviet researcher Vladimir P. Demikhov implanted the first artificial heart into a dog. The American, Willem Kolff made the next attempt. The calf which had the heart implant survived for about 90 minutes. In 1982, Kolff implanted an artificial heart into a man who survived for 112 hours. The American Robert Jarvik developed an artificial heart. This heart was made of aluminium and polyurethane, and was later named Jarvik – 7. It consisted of two pumps which functioned as two natural ventricles but had to a bulky piece of equipment. But the artificial heart had too many shortcomings. Another apparatus was made, but with the risk of thrombosis (clot formation), the formation of foreign connective tissues, haemolysis (alteration of red blood cells) and malfunction due to the rupture of diaphragms.

1. Artificial Blood:

In 1933, the American Clark and Gollan kept some mice immersed in a liquid which flooded their lungs and should have killed them. But they stayed alive. This fluid was an emulsion of a fluorocarbon in water. These fluorocarbon molecules link up with significant quantities of oxygen present in the water. This showed the beginnings of the invention of the blood substitute. In 1967, the American, Henry A. Sloviter injected the fluorocarbon emulsion into some rabbits along with the physiological liquid and some albumen. He also found that if the injected liquid is above a third in volume with respect to the blood, then the animal may die, because the substitute liquid cannot efficiently transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. The Japanese, Ryochi Naito carried out the first experiment on man by injecting himself with 200 ml of Fluosol DA, a milky looking artificial blood.

A curious kid looking through a keyhole, the keyhole of nature, trying to know what’s going on. Explore this list of Topyaps covering ten young notable inventors.

10. Taylor Hernadez:

In 2005, this baby girl of 10 year claimed the prestigious “Chester Awards” for inventing the “Magic Sponge Blocks”. Resident of Cincinnati, Ohio, she stacked the building blocks using sponge which was controlled by embedded magnets.

9. Austin Meggitt:

This American schoolboy was nine when he invented a device for carrying a baseball bat, ball and glove safely on the handlebars of a bicycle. In 2000, he received U.S. patent no. 6,029,874. In 2008, his product Battie Caddy was launched in the market as commercially available product.

8. John J. Stone-Parker:

In 1989, when John was only four years old, he invented a star shaped gadget to prevent ice from slipping out of a drinking glass. He is the youngest ever holder of a patent.

7. Walter Lines:

Ground breaker in the toy industry, he started his toy business when he was merely 14 year old. Founding father of Britain’s major toy manufacturing company – “Triang Toys”, he is also credited with inventing scooter at the age of 15.

6. Chester Greenwood:

Greenwood of Farmington, Mine, USA was aged 15 in 1873 when he invented earmuffs. He started Greenwood’s ear protector factory and made a fortune by supplying his product to the US soldiers during World war I.

5. Frank Epperson:

The popsicle or ice lolly was invented by 11 year old Frank Epperson of San Fransisco, California, in 1905. He had the idea when he left a fruit drink out during a freezing winter night and originally called it the Epsicle. He did not apply for a patent until 1923, by which time his son had renamed it Popsicle.

4. Peter Chilvers:

Chilvers was 12 when he invented boardsailing (windsurfing) in 1958 off Hayling island, UK. Chilvers was also involved with the “Lotus Cars”, racing car manufacturing company of Britain.

3. Louis Braille:

Considered as one of the most celebrated phenomenon in the world of blinds, he himself was blind but invented the raised-dot writing mechanism for blind people at the early age of 15. His invention was known as Braille system which is used by moving the fingers over dotted characters.

2. Charles Babbage:

Babbage was 19 when he first thought of the idea of the mechanical computer. This iconic mathematician came up with his crank driven computer but failed to construct it due to some financial and complex mechanical problems. However, it was completed in London after 153 years in 2002 with a massive structure.

1. Horatio Adams:

Adams was only 16 when he assisted his father, Thomas, in his experiments with chicle, the dried sap of a Mexican jungle tree. This led to the invention of chewing gum.

Telescopes and Observatories have done a tremendous job to explore the unknown aspects of space. Have a look on this page of Topyaps and know more about these revolutionary inventions.

10. Keck I & II Telescopes, Mauna Kea Observatory Hawaii, USA:

The two Keck telescopes were opened in 1992-96. They are situated 4,000m up a Hawaiian mountain, so above 40 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. They are the world’s most powerful ground-based instruments, with a 10.82m total aperture made up of 36 hexagonal mirrors. Equipped with sophisticated cameras and spectrometers, each telescope is about 300 tons in weight.

9. Hubble Space Telescope, USA:

The HST was launched in 1990 and orbits 600km above earth’s atmosphere. It can photograph distant objects with ten times the detail possible with ground-based telescopes. Invented by NASA, this extraordinary space telescope has helped to rectify some of the major astronomical hurdles. This telescope has enabled scientists to find out the age of universe as well as the rate at which universe is expanding.

8. Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico:

This is the largest single-aperture telescope till the date which is operated by Cornell University. Its uses include searching for pulsars and quasars and the search for the alien life forms under the SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) programme.  Its giant 305m dish features in the final scenes of the James Bond film – “Golden Eye.”

7. Jodrell Bank, Cheshire:

Originally known as Jodrell Bank Experimental Station, this observatory was founded by Sir Bernard Lovell in 1945 and currently governed by University of Manchester. Initially, Jodrell Bank was used for academic activities but after World War II it was involved in major researches such as, investigating the cosmic rays, concluding the space age and exploring the gravitational lenses.

6. Hale Telescope, Palomar Observatory, California, USA:

This groundbreaking telescope was named after astronomer George Ellery Hale and has played a vital role in discovering the mystical phenomenons of the Universe. Consisting ultramodern spectrograph, adaptive optics systems and infrared array imagers, this telescope is administrated by California Institute of Technology.

5. Mount Wilson Observatory, California, USA:

This astronomical observatory is located at the height of 1,742m in San Gabriel Mountains. In 1904, the Carnegie Institution of Washington provided this observatory a crucial funding. Focusing on deep space observation, this eminent observatory of 20th century has three solar telescopes, well known for exploring sun’s nature.

4. Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA:

Governed by University of Chicago, this observatory was launched in 1897 and till the date it has the largest refracting telescope in the world used for astronomical research. Dedicated to explore near earth objects, infrared astronomy, interstellar medium and globular cluster formation, this observatory is considered as the birth place of modern astrophysics.

3. Birr Castle, Co. Offaly, Ireland:

The Earl of Rosse’s 1.8 reflecting telescope, built in 1845, was used to discover the spiral form of galaxies. It was the world’s largest until the opening of Mount Wilson and it was recently restored and opened to the public.

2. Herschel’s “Forty-foot” reflector, Slough:

This ancient telescope was invented by Sir William Herschel and Caroline Herschel between 1785 to 1789 in Britain. Settled on the grounds of observatory house, this telescope is renowned for discovering the 6th and 7th moons of Saturn. Mirror’s diameter was 48 inch and focal length was 40 foot, hence it name forty foot. It was disintegrated in 1839 and now resides in the Science Museum of London.

1. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London:

This observatory was founded by King Charles II in 1675 but atmospheric and light pollution reduced its efficiency. In 1984, the Prime or Greenwich Meridian, zero degree, which passes through the Observatory, was adopted as the basis for all mapping and measurements. It constituted a 28 inch refracting telescope which was launched in 1893. However, it was ceased in late 1960s but still it is a key ingredient of educational programmes.

The energy of the mind is the essence of life and what a mind can create is without limits. Energy is the only reason why there is life on earth and mechanics is what helps us live here comfortably. This article on TopYaps deals with the revolutionary inventions in the field of energy and mechanics.

10. Natural gas (China, 4^th Century BC):

When the people of the southern provinces of China located natural gas or methane on the surface of the soil, its spontaneous combustion must have made them decide to exploit it. A text dating from 347 BC describes the making of water proof bamboo pipes with bitumen. These pipes were used to transport methane to the towns, where it was used for various things along with town lighting. Methane was stored in bamboo tubes and these were used as torches and fuel reserves  by travelers. It was during the first century, that the Chinese drilled the earth to collect methane in a systematic way. Methane gas, found on the surface, burned without danger. But it has been seen that the consumption of methane can cause some accidents. To avoid the explosion of methane, the gas collected at great depths though richer, had to be mixed with air before use.

9. Ball-Bearings (Mesopotamia, Egypt, 3000 BC):

The rows of logs used in Mesopotamia and in Egypt to transport heavy objects, such as blocks of stone or boats, can be said to be the principle behind the invention of the ball bearings. It consists of balls to reduce the friction between two moving objects at the point of contact. Thus, it was a mechanical principle, evidence of which was found in Greece in the 5^th and 4^th century BC. It was found in 1928 that a primitive ball bearing mechanism, consisting of a cylindrical case with bronze balls, was invented by Roman  engineers. This cylindrical case might have reduced the friction between the metallic objects and the wooden objects. With the advancement of different means of transport, and also due to the advancement of metallurgy in 19^th century the interest in ball bearing increased. Ball bearings were installed in 1879, and the first vehicle to benefit from it was the bicycle. In 1862, the Frenchmen Pierre Michaus patented ball bearings.

8. Aerodynamics (Tsiolkovski, 1892 –  96, Chrysler, 1934):

Since the birth of ballistics, problems caused by air resistance of moving objects have been experienced. But it was not until the vehicles moving on the ground, sea and air attained speed, that these problems were heeded. Between 1892 and 1896, Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovski built fan engines, thus, defining mathematically the forces of friction exerted on the surface of the vehicle. But when Aeroplanes, cars and boats were designed, aerodynamics was not taken into account. In 1899 the Belgian Camille Jenatzy designed the vehicle which beat the 100 km/h record. Its chassis was in the form of a shell. Subsequently, Andre Citroen’s 7A, the front wheel drive and the Chrysler Airflow were the first motor vehicles that attempted to reduce the air resistance for the forward motion. Soon the automobile and the aviation industries started giving huge importance to the aerodynamics.

7. Turbines (Hero of Alexandria, 1^st century BC, Leonardo da Vinci, 1480):

Turbines were the machines which worked on the hydraulics, gas and steam energy. The success of gas turbines in the 20th century led to thew turbo compressor. In 1480 AD, Leonardo da Vinci attempted to make the hot air turbine which was gas powered, and was called smoke jack. In 1872, the German F. Stolz proposed a turbine consisting of a combustion chamber from which hot air was directed towards a heat exchanger where it was re heated by air coming from another combustion chamber. This was then directed towards the compressor activating a paddle wheel, which in turn would send it out into the open air. Stolz devised the principle of the double cycle open gas turbine, but could not put it into practice as the technology was not advanced at that time. In 1884, Parsons made a turbine in which steam was fed centrally and ejected in all directions. The output of the De Laval turbine was improved independently by the Frenchman C.E.A. Rateau and the American Charles G. Curtis, in 1894.

6. Hydraulic pumps (Archimedes, 3^rd century BC, Hero of Alexandria, 1^st century BC):

Certain mechanisms, which convey water from one level to another and finally draw it up or invert its flow, were developed and improved. One such mechanism –  the screw, was made by Archimeded. It consisted of seven partitions fixed in a spiral form on a log so as to create the same number of compartments. From a streamlining effect it was covered with a cylinder, and coal tar was used to make it water tight, leaving the only two ends open. The foundation for modern pumps was laid with the pneumatic organ made by Ctesibius, and engineer from the school of Alexandria. The device consisted of two cylinders with a hole made on their lower surfaces. The pistons were activated by rods fixed to a balancing rod. The two cylinders were connected to each other by a horizontal pipe, to which the drainage pipe was connected. Hero of Alexandria worked and improved upon this above mentioned principle. He attached a head to the drainage pipe which could rotate completely in a circle, that is, full 360 degree. Thus allowing water to be made available in all directions. He also reinforced the water tightness of the cylinder by making disc valves for the input of water.

5. Fuel cell ( Bacon, 1959):

In a fuel cell, reactions which produce electric current are brought about by the substances present outside the casing. Its main advantage is that it provides continuous current. In 1959, the Englishman, Francis Bacon built the first specific fuel cell. It consisted of an alkaline electrolyte potassium hydroxide dissolved in water. The electrodes are made up of a porous metal, into which the electrolyte can only penetrate in a controlled manner. Behind one electrode plate there is oxygen, and behind the other electrode plate is hydrogen. When hydrogen comes in contact with ions of the electrolyte, in the pores of the corresponding electrode, some electrons are freed. These electrons are captured by the atoms of oxygen on the other side. Hence the current flows as long as there is hydrogen and oxygen in the reservoir.

4. Electric Generator (Guericke, 1663; Gramme, 1870; Lamme, 1896):

In 1663, Otto Von Guericke had an idea of making a very simple machine producing static electricity. His machine consisted of a sulphur ball on an axle, turned by a crank. When both hands were placed around the ball, the hands were excited electrically. In 1787, the Englishman Edward Nairne made a device which produced negative or positive electricity, but it was of no practical use. In 1831, the Englishman Michael Faraday had discovered electromagnetic induction and his machine began to have a greater output after the Italian Antonio Pacinotti (1860) and the Belgian Zenobe Theophile Gramme (1870) brought about certain improvements. Subsequently, the generators started benefiting from the invention of the internal current equalizers, by the American Benjamin Graver Lamme, in 1896. Thus, generators became large and powerful. As a result, current was produced from steam and hydraulic energy and transmitted over greater distances. Thus, energy became available everywhere.

3. Electric Battery (Galvani, 1780; Fabbroni, 1769; Volta, 1800):

Copper and iron existed during the Parthian period. They might have notice the contractions an animal underwent on being hanged from an iron bar. On plugging copper and iron into a container of acetic acid, electricity was generated. Thus, we may conclude that Volta was inspired to make an electric battery, keeping all these discoveries in mind. In 1780, the Italian Galvani, attached a copper hook to the spinal c0rd of a dissected frog, and then hooked the frog to an iron net. When he touched the animal’s leg nerve with a scalpel, it underwent spasms. Volta, on other hand, understood the implications of Galvani’s experiment. Fabbroni, in 1796, discovered that if two strips of different metals were place in water in such a way that they touched each other, then one of the strip was oxidized. The battery by Volta consisted of several pairs of zinc-copper discs, in direct contact, but separated from one another by moist cardboard.

2. Carnot Cycle (Carnot, 1824):

Sadi Carnot’s invention was a major event because it founded a new science called Thermodynamics. In 1824, Carnot published a report, in which he outlined a theory of the steam engine. According to Carnot, the cylinder which is in contact with a source of heat must be divided into four stages. In the first stage, piston A, due to the expansion of the gas, is at the end of the stroke. It is an isothermic expansion wherein the internal loss of heat is made up by the external source of heat in the decompression. In the second stage, that is from B to C, there is cooling of the gas due to decompression, thus expansion is adiabatic. From C to D, which is the third stage, compression is isothermic and finally from D to A, it is an adiabatic phase. The two expansion stages produce energy and the compression stages use up the energy.

1. Atomic Energy (Einstein, 1907; Hahn, Meitner, Srassman, Bohr, 1939; Fermi, 1942):

The concept of the fission of the atom was first noticed in the work of Albert Einstein, in 1907, where he compared energy and matter (E=mc²). In 1938, the Germans Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassman discovered that when uranium was bombarded with slow or fast neutrons, it would break down into two other elements, barium and krypton, with the release of an enormous amount of energy. The peaceful use of atomic energy was realized only when the first atomic bomb was manufactured. This allowed three essential factors to be classified. The first was the nature of the element that could be used to start the energy releasing chain reactions. Bohr found it to be uranium-235 present in small quantities with uranium-238. Plutonium-239, which was discovered later, could also be used for the purpose. The Italian Enrico Fermi built the first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago in the United States. It functioned with graphite, uranium metal and uranium oxide, with control rods made up of cadmium. The graphite served as a moderator, i.e., helping in slowing down the reaction.